by: Valerie Jimenez

If one tunes into local radio stations targeting Latin Americans (like La Mega 97.9 FM), merengue (a music and dance genre from the Dominican Republic) will be the most popular music heard. Even on commercials-from one trying to sell toothpaste to another trying to sell real estate-merengue again is heard in the background. Lately, there have emerged new hybrid types of merengue, like merengue/bachata (where the bachata, a popular bolero-based song form from the Dominican Republic, is integrated into a merengue rhythm) and reggaeton (a combination of Jamaican reggae, Dominican merengue and United States rap). The merengue is an international phenomena. It has traveled around the world, experiencing continued growth and fame, with an audience that extends beyond Dominican borders or ancestry. All of Latin America has come to view merengue as its national rhythm and dance.
   
The story of the merengue's international success is made even more fascinating when viewed within the context of Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina, the Dominican Republic dictator. During his rule, Trujillo transformed the merengue into a Dominican national symbol (Austerlitz 1998), demanding the previously-viewed peasant dance to be played at all political functions, and to be danced at all the Dominican parties.   Trujillo was specific in his tastes, allowing only the Merengue Cibaeño (típico or perico ripiao) to be played or heard on radio stations. No hybrid merengue forms were allowed; no provocative song texts were accepted; and only Dominicans were authorized to play the traditional merengue forms.
   
Upon Trujillo's death in 1961, however, merengue went from his back pocket to international sensation. Like a bottle clasped tightly in his hands, Trujillo kept merengue close to him, put in it everything and anything he wanted. Careful to keep the bottle cap tightly sealed, Trujillo shook it, tossed it around, and created an inner tension. At his death, however, the bottle top was loosened and removed, forcing everything in the bottle to explode and spill everywhere. This paper examines the merengue within the metaphor of the bottle, examining how the death of Trujillo helped unleash the Dominican merengue into international stardom.
   
Merengue’s origins are uncertain.  On the one hand, Paul Austerlitz claims that it has an Afro-Spanish foundation (1) .  There are arguments of it being formed from Cuban Danza.  On the other hand, it’s speculated that it had been influenced by Saint-Domingue colonists escaping the revolution in Haiti.  He doesn’t definitely give merengue a origin, merely speculates.  Merengue is just one general name put on a musical form that has several different forms.  Instrumentation, rhythms, tempos and lyrics vary, they also represent different towns.  Some of these merengues are merengue de guitarra (guitar-based merengue), merengue de acordeon (according based merengue)(2) , merengue cibaeño (which is also known as merengue típico or perico ripiao), Pambiche(3)  (also known as merengue estilo yanqui), sectional merengue cibaeño.  All these forms have their own style and characteristics one of which, for example is the pambiche.  The difference the pambiche had from the merengue típico is it’s tempo and content.  Rhythmically, the music were similar and both have the instruments tambora, güira, and accordion.

“They (The tambora, güira, and accordion) are often considered symbolic of the whole country. The güira is a metal scraper believed to be of native Taíno origin, while the tambora is a two-headed drum of African origin. Together with the European accordion, the típico group symbolizes the three cultures that combined to make today’s Dominican Republic” (4

The story of pambiche origins as well as it’s tempo and  rhythms on the tambora are what tell this merengue apart from others.  “The pambiche features cinquillo-related tambora rhythms, major tonic and dominant harmonies and a melody repeated many times with improvisation variations”(5) Its origin had to do with North Americans, who at the time were occupying the Dominican Republic.  The North Americans had a hard time dancing in sync with the fast rhythms that Dominicans were so used to in their merengue.  Musicians noticed this and thought the Americans would have an easier time dancing the merengue if it were slowed down.  The Americans had been combining the steps to music they were used to, to merengue which didn’t not match up very well.  What was then done was the merengue was slowed down, syncopated and was done by “imitating the North Americans” (6).   
   
Merengue típico cibaeño (or merengue típico) had the following instrumentation accordion, tambora, güira and some kind of horn (baritone or saxophone) according to Austerlitz.  Santiago de los Caballeros was the place that this form was to come out from. It’s often known as merengue del campo or country music for merengue. (7) This merengue is one that was made popular and was deemed the national music in the Dominican republic.  The merengue was known as merengue típico or perico ripiao
   
El Generalissimo Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina, as he was known, was a Dominican who was involved in every political aspect of his country. He was trained by the United States when he joined the army in the Dominican Republic.  This army was built by the marines that were occupying the country at the time (8).Trujillo was quickly promoted and ran for presidency and acquired the position in 1930.  He took advantage of his power, exploiting the population for his own selfish means. Not all his actions were negative as one source puts it: 

“Before a majority of the people living in that country were illiterate, not many went to school and neither could they write.  However, when he came to power he forced everyone to go to school.  It might sound negative but he made it so more people acquired the ability to read and write. Not just children were made to go to school, everyone had to school.  In the morning to the afternoon, the children were to go to school At night the adults.  He helped me get my education by supplying shoes, uniforms, books pencils even lunch for school by applying for these things with him.  He made it possible for everyone to be at least as the same level.” (9)  

This source states that roads were built, everything was respectable peaceful.  There was crime and horrible things that happened but we were poor we minded our own business he stated. 
   
Trujillo is written in history as the man who had significant influence in the development of merengue and it’s rise to national recognition.  He first came into contact with merengue from el cibao while in the military.  He loved it, and when he acquired the position as president of the Dominican Republic he took merengue with him and promoted himself with it.  Merengue was used for many things between 1930 and 1961.  “Not only the music but the lyrics of merengue cibaeño appealed to dancers and listeners.  In a witty, light-hearted tone, songs commented on everyday life and serious political issues.” (10)  Trujillo knew or at least was aware of how valuable this musical form was because it appealed to so many people, especially the poor  that were the main persons responsible for the music.  “Popular music is a commodity reduced for recreational purposes, musicians often get away with singing statements that would not otherwise be tolerated in a speech.”(11)  Since music has been heard by so many, listened to in many contexts, it was clear that it could be used as a tool to not only convey information but also to manipulate people and finding loyalties through the music by making people write songs that supported a particular view or person.  What can be done is limit what can be heard, played danced to and enforce government supportive music through many different methods such as monetary support, taking away opportunity, restriction and even isolating the people and country from opportunities.
    By making merengue cibaeño a national music he created a form of mass media similar to the radio. It would be easy to find out loyalties because he made it known that everyone all the dance halls no matter who was found there (rich or poor) were to play some Trujillo endorsed songs  Trujillo kept his country, the Dominican Republic, as well as everything else under his tight grip.  One source states that Trujillo did not allow anyone to leave the country.  The dictator wanted to control everyone and any information or comments about him or his government.  Trujillo was also making sure that the musicians, especially the successful ones, or the ones he supported, did not leave. “Fearing Dominican musicians would not return, the dictator rarely allowed them to perform outside the country.” (12)   Trujillo used merengue to promote his own agenda. It was used for propaganda, to find out his loyalties, make more money as well as help his family members.  He also used it to get a cut in any profits.  Trujillo protected his integrity and regime by censoring statements that went against him.  He severely censored any music that would have a double meaning that might have put down him or his government.  Trujillo supported merengue by buying bands and having them play at salons, places he would visit, on his or his family’s radio stations.  He had the best musicians in his bands and would provide for the band members what they needed. 
    There were many musicians that were involved with merengue’s development and it’s rise to stardom.  There wasn’t any one person that can be deemed the person that can be acknowledged however because the musicians and different times had something to contribute.  Luis Alberti is one of the men who was famous for his arrangement and for being the one who is responsible for merengue in the beginning.  He was responsible for the big band merengue and created the sound that Trujillo liked so much. 

“Luis Alberti is a musician that stayed. He was responsible for producing the big band, the classic merengue. He is famous for his arrangements and was very well recognized.  He conformed to what Trujillo had demanded of everyone at the time.  He did do innovative things with merengue such as add bits of jazz and classical instruments however he did it in little bits and stuck with the normal guidelines of the time.  He did not make it international, he was just one of the main characters in merengue’s beginnings.  By creating the sound that Trujillo liked he was able to remain part of the system ” (Abreu 2005) ) (13)

Luis Alberti’s band, which was known as the “Orquestra Presidente Trujillo“(14) ,  and was very well supported by Trujillo.  They were a big band, who played merengue with a jazz influence.   They played in many places and traveled with Trujillo, by doing so they became known within the country.  “Some of the best musicians played in Trujillo’s bands.”(15)   There were of course other bands at that time but not many were as popular and noted as Luis Alberti.  “He didn’t make international.  He (Alberti) is one of the main characters in the beginnings of Merengue.”  The only kind of hybrid merengue that was done, was done in the style of Alberti.  This kind of merengue was what Trujillo liked.  It brought a high class sound and look to the song form of peasants.  Trujillo didn‘t forbid influences from the outside, he just didn‘t support what he didn‘t like.  When he did forbid imports of foreign music it was when his brother, who at the time owned a radio station decided to make money from recording artists. (16)  When the venture proved fruitless for the dictator‘s brother, people were allowed to listen to music from abroad once more. (17)  Alberti’s big band Orquestra style and merengue eventually died out because of it’s complexity. It involved to many instruments, too many musicians needed to be classically trained in order to come out with this type of band.  What Alberti created however was the modern merengue that we listen to today. 
During Trujillo’s regime there were some people that managed to escape either through exile or they just found a way to leave the country.  These people, Billo Frómeta (emigrated to Venezuela), Alberto Beltrán (New York City), Luis Kalaff (Puerto Rico then New York City), Negrito Chapuseaux and Rafael Damirón, Josecito Roman, Napoleon Zayas, Angel Viloria are a few individuals that left the Dominican republic and took their knowledge of merengue with them and transplanted it in their new homes.  Those that moved to the united stated changed merengue by adding more instruments and subtracting others as well as adding more of an American sense of rhythm to it, slowing it down. 
   
Trujillo was assassinated in 1961.  “After he died there was a period of instability. Balaguer was his successor and was president for 12 years.  Music was still the same hour ever. Not much was affected. During Trujillo’s time and after his death there were a limited amount of bands and there were also limited ways in which to play merengue.” (18) (Abreu 2005)  After that and into the 80’s, Jose explained, was the time when merengue exploded. Johnny Ventura, Wilfrido Vargas and others infused it with more American musical aspects so as to make it more understandable by international tastes.  The reason for it’s explosion into the world market was that the music was changed into something that had a more Americanized taste.  It turns out that Dominican merengue, the merengue of el campo, was for the Dominican, it was a musical form that Dominicans understood.
   
When Trujillo came along he started the change into the type of merengue we listen to today outside of the Dominican Republic. Coded messages are necessary in this time. During the tyrannically regime they were because if the musician was found and the message was deciphered then it would mean death for the musician or the composer of the song.  “Coded messages were not happing in Trujillo’s band. There were always merengues with coded messages through.” (Abreu 2005)  These days, as Jose pointed out, there was no need for it, neither was there a need around the time that merengue started to explode onto the scene.  The music now there is less coding and more indecency.  The trade of is that there aren’t a lot of good writers.  The lyrics have gotten foul and there is nothing poetic or political said within some of the songs.  There still is some level of censorship in the Dominican Republic in order to stop air-play. The population that wants to hear these songs still manage to get a hold of a copy of the songs.  In the United States the censorship isn’t that strict, it’s still played here.” (Abreu 2005) 
   
Demand within the recording industry also affects the changes that merengue is making as the years have passed and are passing.  It all comes down to what makes the most money.  It is changed to sounds more Americanized, certain aspects of other music and tonalities, rhythms all put into merengue so that it would make sense to northern ears.  “Lately record industries have become more interested in Puerto Rican bands because they are more marketable.  These bands do play merengue, however it’s slower.  The interest for them (the Puerto Rican bands) is there because it is what people would consume better.  Dominicans make an play merengues for Dominicans.  Puerto Rican bands might add new instruments along with the traditional ones, in order to make the music easier to assimilate, easier for anyone to assimilate. (19)
   
When I asked my interviewees which merengue they preferred the type from these days or back then it was more of a neutral answer from one and a semi neutral from the other. From Jose Abreu who is a pianist in a band that plays salsa, merengue and other music, stated that he likes the old music but also likes some of the music from the 80s and today.  Basically he likes it all.  He equated the music from back then to be similar classical music.  “It’s old, it’s a little slow and a little difficult to dance to because of it but it’s still good.” is what Jose stated when asked his preference of merengue.  When I asked Damian his preference he stated that he preferred the old ones from that time because now merengue has become indecent, the words don’t mean anything any more.  Music then was more respectable he stated, there weren’t so many double meanings on things like that.  Perhaps the reason for Damian’s preference was because like Jose stated t me before during our conversation was that the music back then was more for Dominicans, today it is for the world consumer. 
   
Merengue now a days is heard by many people from many different countries and backgrounds. for example Paul Austerlitz who is a professor at brown university and the author of "merengue; Dominican music and Dominican identity" He is a saxist and is Finnish who plays merengue music. (20)  Migration had lead to many seeds being sown.  When Dominicans finally got the chance to migrate their culture was taken with them. Merengue was part of that culture and so was played wherever they went. It caught the interests of others and lead to other people besides Dominicans learning how to play it, sing it or listen to it.  “Merengue isn’t very hard to play. The rhythm of the tambora and the güira can get difficult at times but it’s a simple pattern. The bass pretty much plays he same things throughout the song as does the piano. The horns don’t have very much to play sometimes all that they need to do is get that bright sound.” (Abreu 2005) 
   
Such is the case with a group called Merengada, a band based in London is a group that specializes in merengue music. These musicians are of different backgrounds which are Cuban, Mexican, Italian, British, and Dominican musicians. they perform in places like Italy and Belgium. internationalization is also seen in the instrumentation.
   
Merengue has evolved and developed as a musical form including other classical instruments with the traditional Dominican ones.  Introduction of different instruments outside of the traditional instruments that play a specific type of music give rise to the idea of outside influences and cultures affecting a culture and it's music. Also the lyrics are very different than the lyrics that were used back in the days of the dictator there aren’t double means because musicians don’t really face as much persecution as they would have back in the time of the regime. Merengue has been growing and  evolving both in the Dominican republic and out. The growth in the Dominican republic was controlled and slowed.  Then when enough time passed after the dictator and the turbulent times it exposed onto the scene with different guises. 

NOTES
   1 Austerlitz, Paul.  Merengue: Dominican Music and Dominican Identity.  Temple University; Philadelphia, 1997
   2 Hernandez, Deborah Pacini Dominican popular music under the Trujillo dictatorship.  Studies in Latin American                   popular culture; 1993,         Vol 12 p127, 14p
   3  pambiche or pamviche, there might be two different spellings to that word.  The pambiche style came out of Puerto              Plata
   4 Sydney Hutchinson 2003 http://www.iasorecords.com/index.cfm?secid=1&subsecid=82  Merengue: Popular Music          of  the Dominican Republic
   5 Austerlitz, Paul.  Merengue: Dominican Music and Dominican Identity.  Temple University; Philadelphia, 1997
   6 Austerlitz, Paul.  Merengue: Dominican Music and Dominican Identity.  Temple University; Philadelphia, 1997
   7 Sydney Hutchinson 2003 http://www.iasorecords.com/index.cfm?secid=1&subsecid=82 Merengue: Popular Music of           the Dominican Republic
   8 The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2005, Columbia University Press. Rafael Leonidas                 Trujillo Molina
   9   Damian Jimenez,  May 2, 2005, Phone conversation.
  10 Austerlitz, Paul.  Merengue: Dominican Music and Dominican Identity.  Temple University; Philadelphia, 1997
  11 Hernandez, Deborah Pacini.  Dominican popular music under the Trujillo Dictatorship.  Studies in Latin American              Popular Culture; 1993, Vol. 12 p127, 14p.
 12 Allen Ray and Lois Wilcken.  Island Sounds in the Global City.  Institute for Studies in American Music, Brooklyn                 College., New York, 1998.
  13 Jose Abreu, A phone interview. May 8, 2005.
 14 Austerlitz, Paul.  Merengue: Dominican Music and Dominican Identity.  Temple University; Philadelphia, 1997
 15 Jimenez Damian. May 2, 2005 Phone conversation
 16 Hernandez, Deborah Pacini.  Dominican popular music under the Trujillo Dictatorship.  Studies in Latin American              Popular Culture;1993, Vol. 12 p127, 14p.
 17 Music from other lands wasn’t played on the radio, and the minute that someone from the outside would start bashing          the dictator he would ban music from that country like Cuba for example.  Trujillo didn’t really allow anything  or                     anyone to leave his country though.   
18  Jose Abreu, A phone interview. May 8, 2005.
19   New bands or Puerto Rican bands like Elvis Crespo, La Maquina, Grupo Mania.  They all play merengues, the                    arrangement might be by Dominicans. 
20   DeJong, Nanette Rutgers Professor, conversation about this paper April 2005.

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